Cold Shower Benefits, Rules and RESTRICTIONS
Content of this page:
1.
Proven and suggested benefits of taking cold shower
2. Cold shower for better body oxygenation and breathing retraining
3. Cold shower rules
and RESTRICTIONS
References for Cold Shower Benefits, Rules and RESTRICTIONS
References and Abstracts for Brown Adipose Tissue Research
1. Proven and suggested benefits of taking cold shower
Knowing rules and restrictions of cold showering is very important for getting all benefits of this procedure. For example, "A cold shower could make the drunk person pass out or fall", as it is claimed by Harvard University Health Services. This effect takes place due to greatly improved perfusion of the brain, liver and other vital organs which can be overloaded with the negative effects of alcohol. Which other medical professionals investigate the effects and rules of taking cold shower?
(Left side: Video Cold Shower Benefits)
Medical research suggested the following benefits of regular cold shower
application:
- activation the sympathetic nervous system (Shevchuk, 2008)
- increase the blood level of beta-endorphin and noradrenaline and increase
synaptic release of noradrenaline in the brain as well (Shevchuk, 2008)
- electrical stimulation of peripheral nerve endings to the brain,
which could result in an anti-depressive effect (Shevchuk, 2008)
- significant analgesic effect without noticeable side effects or causing
dependence (Shevchuk, 2008)
- reduction in muscle soreness after running a marathon (Liang et al, 2001)
- improved quality of sleep (Onen et al, 1994)
- decrease of uric acid level in blood plasma (Brenke et al, 1994)
- inhibition of purine metabolism (Brenke et al, 1994)
- long-term antioxidative adaptation (Brenke et al, 1994)
- improved tone of the skin and muscles (Mergeay et al, 1990)
- reduction in uremic pruritus (a major problem for patients with end-stage
renal disease) (Zucker et al, 2003)
- increase in brown fat cells that protects from aging, fight obesity,
diabetes, heart disease, etc. (Kanzleiter et al,2005; Mattson, 2010). All
references and quotes are provided below.
Brown fat = special fat cells that have, unlike white fat cells, high concentrations of mitochondria and, therefore, able to generate heat without any muscular activity. Brown fat concentrations are very high in new-borns and infants, but gradually decline with aging due to absence of cold stimulation in the general population.
Medical research in relation to brown fat or brown adipose tissues is one of the top priorities in modern medical biochemistry and molecular biology, as potential treatment for obesity, diabetes and diseases of aging (see References and Abstracts for Brown Adipose Tissue Research - below on this page). While many doctors investigate how to increase brown fat concentrations in humans using medical drugs and transplantation, some natural doctors suggested the most natural way to increase our brown fat stores, cold showering.
2. Cold shower for better body oxygenation and breathing retraining
Dr. Buteyko and
his MDs always viewed cold water adaptation (e.g., taking
cold shower, cold water dowsing, bathing in snow, etc.) as an important part of
the Buteyko method of breathing retraining. There are several known
physiological processes that help us to achieve a better health state due to
better adaptation to cold. (Note that this adaptation takes place only when the
person follows certain rules.) Some of these beneficial processes are:
1. Cold showering favorably redistribute the blood in a way that is similar to effects of CO2 and NO on arteries and arterioles. Since cold water is applied on the surface of the body, the veins located near the surface constrict and the blood is pushed into arteries, arterioles and capillaries. Over two thirds of systemic resistance to blood flow in the cardiovascular system is in these blood vessels (arteries, arterioles and capillaries). Hence, this blood redistribution causes and leads to better perfusion (blood supply) of all tissues and organs and reduces heart rate. In this sense, application of cold water has some similarities with CO2 and NO effects on blood vessels.
2. Regular use of cold shower reduces heat losses (KP. Buteyko) and decreases core body temperature (Russian health nuts are preoccupied with having lower body temperature due to a wide-spread belief that just one degree reduction in core body temperature extends expected life span of humans by some decades.)
3. Cold water adaptation builds up brown fat cells that has a large concentration of mitochondria to generate heat without physical contraction or muscular movements.
4. A German study found positive effects of such body hardening on certain
blood parameters.
“Whole-body cold stimuli lead to a dosage-depended decrease of uric acid
level in blood plasma. This could be observed in own studies on
winter-swimming and cold shower application and in studies on patients
treated by cold-chamber-therapy. This uric acid decrease is due to an
accelerated oxygen radical formation during cold exposition rather than to
an inhibition of purine metabolism. The acute oxidative loading due to cold
exposure and the long-term antioxidative adaptation may be interpreted as a
new molecular mechanism resulting in body hardening” (Brenke et al, 1994).
5. Correct application of cold shower water (see Rule #3 below: gradual exposure) results in natural breath holding probably due to some reflexatory mechanism. Hence, taking, for example, cold shower results in all beneficial mechanisms and effects related to CO2 uses in the human body, including better oxygenation and perfusion of all vital organs, calmer mind, improved immunity, better sleep and digestion, and many others due to increased body oxygen content (DIY body oxygen test or the control pause - see instructions below) by about 2-3 s. In my view, application of cold shower has about the same effect on health and CP (control pause), although physiologically different, as one half of the typical Buteyko reduced breathing exercise session.
6. Most importantly, regular use of cold showers will help you to adapt to cold conditions and improve your morning CP due to normalized thermoregulation and general adaptation to cold conditions. This CP increase means better general health and well-being with improvements in all systems and organs of the human body.
3. Cold shower rules and restrictions
The below rules and restrictions are based on clinical experience of 200 Russian doctors. They
taught the Buteyko self-oxygenation breathing therapy to ten thousands of
Russian patients. (This therapy is officially approved by the Russian Health
Ministry). Taking cold showers is an integral part of the Buteyko breathing
method. Why? Doctor Buteyko and his colleagues found that taking cold shower,
when safe, increases oxygenation of the body and improves personal well-being.
For these reasons, all these doctors explained the main rules regarding water- and cold-tempering activities. When it is safe?
Rule #1 is to have sufficient body oxygen stores and feel well. The patient should measure their own oxygen content using the stress-free breath holding time test: the CP (control pause) before taking cold shower. For this medical therapy, the CP is the key parameter of health. These Russian doctors tested many thousands of patients and discovered the following results since this test is the key parameter of health for the Buteyko technique.
Severely sick, terminally ill and hospitalized patients have from 1 to about 10 s CP. With approaching death, their breathing gets heavier (deeper and/or faster), while the CP approaches zero: 5, 4, 3, 2, and only 1 second of oxygen in the body just before the death. Over 90% of people die in conditions of severe overbreathing.
Sick patients with mild forms of the chronic disease (asthma, bronchitis, heart disease, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, cancer, etc.) have about 10-20 s CP (body oxygen content). These patients are usually on medication to control their symptoms.
Asymptomatic asthmatics, heart patients with no symptoms and many others have slightly more than 20 s of oxygen in the body.
Healthy adults, according to published western results, should have about 40 s CP. This result corresponds to normal breathing pattern, but Doctor Buteyko found that 60 s CP is incompatible with about 150 chronic diseases or diseases of civilization (his norm corresponds to even slower breathing: about 4 L/min for minute ventilation and 8 breaths per minute for respiratory frequency at rest). Hence, he established 60 s as a standard of ideal health.
Rule #1, according to Russian doctors, is to have over 20 s of oxygen in the body when you take cold shower and feel well. If one’s oxygenation is less, the patient is likely to get an infection, fever, sore throat, blocked nose, and/or other negative symptoms. Also, when one feels unwell due to, for example, approaching infection or his or her normal CP dropped a low (e.g., from 60 down to 23 seconds - such people can recover from flu in hours, but cold shower would not be a good idea at this critical time), then one needs to postpone cold shower till better times. This is the key restriction for taking cold shower. (Note that if you have been taking it for months or years with less then 20 s CP, you could be able to continue to take it safely, but it is better if you increase your CP so that to enjoy better health and quality of life.)
Other rules are:
Rule #2. Start with warming up bones and deeper body tissues with warm water, if they got cold after prolonged cold exposure.
Rule #3. Very gradually
change water temperature from warm to cold (or apply cold
water to various body parts in sequence) so that transition to cold is very
gradual (up to 40-60 s). If you use only cold water, apply cold water for one
arm only. Then do the same with the other arm. After finishing both arms, apply
cold water for one leg only. Then use cold water for the other leg. Finally,
start with the lower trunk of the water and rise up to the shoulders, which are
the most sensitive area.
Every time, when you take cold shower using this "slow" method, make sure and check that your breathing naturally becomes small and slow. Many healthy people even hold their breath naturally for some tens seconds.
Rule #4. Apply cold shower for about 30-60 s so that to cool down deep tissues of your body.
Rule #5. If you use contrast shower (cold-warm-cold-warm…), always finish with cold water.
Rule #6. Some Russian Buteyko MDs suggest that it is good to let water dry naturally without use of a towel. Others recommend vigorous rubbing with a towel until skin gets warm.
Warning. Note that you should not take cold shower immediately after too long and exhausting session of physical exercise, or when your blood glucose level is low, or soon after meals. Ideally, it should be done on empty stomach.
References: CO2 Effects Web Pages
Vasodilation: CO2 expands arteries and arterioles facilitating perfusion
(or blood
supply) to all vital organs
The Bohr effect
How and why oxygen is released by red blood cells in tissues
Cell Oxygen Levels and oxygen transport are controlled by
alveolar CO2 and breathing
Oxygen Transport depends on
breathing and these two effects (Vasoconstriction-Vasodilation and the Bohr
effect) are parts of two diagrams that summarize influences of hypocapnia (low CO2
content in the blood and cells) on circulation and O2 delivery
Free Radical Generation takes
place due to anaerobic cell respiration caused by cell hypoxia. Hence,
antioxidant defenses of the human body are also regulated by CO2 and breathing
Inflammatory Response is controlled by
breathing since hypoxia leads to or intensifies chronic inflammation through over-expression
of the hypoxia-inducible factor 1, while normal
breathing reduces these processes
Nerve stabilization takes place due to calmative or
sedative effects of carbon dioxide in neurons or nerve cells
Muscle relaxation or relaxation of muscle cells
is normal at high CO2, while hypocapnia causes muscular tension, poor posture
and, sometimes, aggression and violence
Brochodilation - dilation of
airways (bronchi and bronchioles) by carbon dioxide, and their constriction due
to hypocapnia
CO2: Best Natural Cough Suppressant
and "home remedy" since it calms urge-to-cough nerve receptors located in the
tracheobronchial tree and larynx
Blood
pH regulation and regulation of other bodily fluids
CO2: Lung Damage Healer: Elevated carbon
dioxide prevents injury and promotes healing of lung tissues
CO2: Skin and Tissue Healer
Synthesis of Glutamine
in the Brain, CO2 fixation, and other chemical reactions
CO2 myth
"CO2 is a toxic waste gas" myth
Breathing control
How is our breathing regulated? Why hypocapnia makes breathing uneven and erratic?
Reference Web Pages: Breathing norms, Medical Graphs and Tables about Breathing Rates (Minute Ventilation) and
Body Oxygen in Healthy, Normal and Sick People
Breathing
norms Parameters, graph, and description of the normal
breathing pattern
6 breathing myths 6
myths about breathing and body oxygenation (prevalence: over 90%)
Hyperventilation Definitions of
hyperventilation: their advantages and weak points
Hyperventilation Syndrome in the
Sick. Table
1. Western scientific evidence about prevalence of CHV
(chronic hyperventilation) in patients with various chronic conditions
(34 medical studies)
Normal Minute Ventilation in
Healthy Subjects: Easy and Light Breathing (14 Studies)
Hyperventilation Prevalence Present in Over 90% of
Normal People (24 medical publications)
HV and hypoxia
How and why deep breathing reduces oxygenation of cells and tissues of
all vital organs
Body oxygen test
How to measure your own breathing and body oxygenation (a simple DIY test)
Body oxygen in healthy
Table 4. CP (body oxygen level) in healthy people (27 medical
studies)
Body oxygen in sick Table 5.
CP (body oxygen level) in sick people (14 medical studies)
Buteyko
Table of Health Zones with clinical description of most common zones
Morning HV Morning
hyperventilation effect or how and why critically ill people are most
likely to die during early morning hours
References for Cold Shower Benefits, Rules and RESTRICTIONS
Med Hypotheses. 2008;70(5):995-1001. Epub 2007 Nov 13.
Adapted cold shower as a potential treatment for depression.
Shevchuk NA.
Molecular Radiobiology Section, The Department of Radiation Oncology,
Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, 401 College St,
Richmond, VA 23298, USA.
Depression is a debilitating mood disorder that is among the top causes of
isability worldwide. It can be characterized by a set of somatic, emotional,
and behavioral symptoms, one of which is a high risk of suicide. This work
presents a hypothesis that depression may be caused by the convergence of
two factors: (A) A lifestyle that lacks certain physiological stressors that
have been experienced by primates through millions of years of evolution,
such as brief changes in body temperature (e.g. cold swim), and this lack of
"thermal exercise" may cause inadequate functioning of the brain. (B)
Genetic makeup that predisposes an
individual to be affected by the above condition more seriously than other
people. To test the hypothesis, an approach to treating depression is
proposed that consists of adapted cold showers (20 degrees C, 2-3 min,
preceded by a 5-min gradual adaptation to make the procedure less shocking)
performed once or twice
daily. The proposed duration of treatment is several weeks to several
months. The following evidence appears to support the hypothesis:
Exposure to cold is known to activate the sympathetic nervous system and
increase the blood level of beta-endorphin and noradrenaline and to increase
synaptic release of noradrenaline in the brain as well. Additionally,
due to the high density of cold receptors in the skin, a cold shower is
expected to send an overwhelming amount of electrical impulses from
peripheral nerve endings to the brain, which could result in an
anti-depressive effect. Practical testing by a statistically
insignificant number of people, who did not have sufficient symptoms to be
diagnosed with depression, showed that the cold hydrotherapy can relieve
depressive symptoms rather effectively. The therapy was also found to
have a significant analgesic effect and it does not appear to have
noticeable side effects or cause dependence. In conclusion, wider and
more rigorous studies would
be needed to test the validity of the hypothesis.
Med Hypotheses. 2008;70(2):230-8. Epub 2007 Jul 20.
Hydrotherapy as a possible neuroleptic and sedative treatment.
Shevchuk NA.
Molecular Radiobiology Section, Department of Radiation Oncology, Virginia
Commonwealth University School of Medicine, 401 College Street, Richmond, VA
23298, USA.
Psychotic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations can have a
devastating effect on a patient's social functioning. Since psychosis is
rarely congenital, it is possible that lifestyle factors play a role in its
etiology. This paper offers a hypothesis that some of these factors could
be: (a) A lifestyle lacking evolutionarily conserved stressors such as
frequent exposure to heat and/or cold, resulting in a lack of "thermal
exercise" which could lead to malfunctioning of the brain. (b) Partial
retention and absorption of toxic waste in the colon, as described in more
detail below. (c) Genetic makeup that makes a person vulnerable to the above
conditions. To test the hypothesis, three types of hydrotherapy are proposed
(to be tested separately) as a putative neuroleptic treatment: head-out hot
showers, adapted cold showers (twice daily each), and colon hydrotherapy
(every 3-12 weeks, which also includes a dietary change according to
Harvard's Healthy Eating Pyramid). The following is supporting evidence:
Dopaminergic transmission in the mesolimbic pathway is involved in central
processing of pain and negative stimuli (e.g. stress-induced analgesia) in
addition to its role in the pathophysiology of psychosis. It is also known
that if a neural pathway can perform two different functions, then the
execution of one function will often suppress the other (e.g. gate control
theory of pain). Thus, a pain-based therapy, such as a moderately hot
shower, could have a "crowding out" effect on
pathological processes within the mesolimbic system. In addition,
hyperthermia is known to induce fatigue and depress activity of the frontal
cortex (the sedative effect). As described previously, an adapted cold
shower could work as a mild electroshock applied to the sensory cortex and,
therefore, it might have an antipsychotic effect similar to that of
electroconvulsive therapy. Additionally, a cold shower is a vivid
example of stress-induced analgesia and would also be expected to "crowd
out" or suppress psychosis-related neurotransmission within the mesolimbic
system. Human and bacterial toxic waste can sometimes be partially
retained in the colon and it is known that many high-molecular-weight
compounds can be absorbed there. Most narcotics can cause intoxication if
administered
rectally and there is also significant comorbidity of schizophrenia with
intestinal illnesses. Additionally, there is indirect evidence that colon
cleansing can significantly improve mental state. Therefore, it is possible
that
chronic intoxication with yet unknown components of partially retained waste
could be one of the unrecognized organic causes of psychosis.
J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2001 Apr;101(4):219-25.
Effect of cooling on muscular health prior to running a marathon.
Liang MT, Allen TW, McKeigue ME, Kotis A, Gierke LW.
Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, California State Polytechnic
University, 3801 West Temple Ave., Pomona, CA 91768, USA.
To examine the effects of a prerace whole-body cold shower on muscle
soreness (MS) and on serum creatine kinase (CK) and creatine kinase MB
(CK-MB) isoenzyme activities, 16 experienced distance runners were randomly
assigned to one of two treatment categories prior to running a marathon:
cold shower (n = 8) or without cold shower (n = 8). Venous blood samples
were drawn 3 days before the race, 10 minutes before the race, immediately
(within 3 minutes) after the race, and at 1, 24, 48, and 96 hours postrace.
Nine muscle sites were evaluated for soreness 10 minutes before the race,
immediately after the race, and at 24, 48, and 96 hours postrace. The
results showed a marked (P < .05) difference between the cold shower group
and the group without cold showers for CK-MB/CK ratio, and no difference
for CK, CK-MB, and MS. Both CK and CK-MB values peaked at 24 hours postrace.
MS occurred most frequently immediately after the race and at 24 hours
postrace. The MS was completely resolved in all subjects by 96 hours
postrace. The most frequently reported sites of MS were the quadriceps,
followed by the gastrocnemius, the soleus, and the tibialis anterior. Severe
MS was rated highest at the quadriceps and the soleus, and the least at the
gastrocnemius and the tibialis anterior. The data suggest that prerace
whole-body cold showers neither prevented the production of serum CK and its
MB fraction, nor attenuated MS after
a marathon. Peak serum CK and CK-MB activity was not associated with the
onset of MS.
Presse Med. 1994 Mar 12;23(10):485-9.
[Prevention and treatment of sleep disorders through regulation] of sleeping
habits]
[Article in French]
Onen SH, Onen F, Bailly D, Parquet P.
Clinique du Sommeil, CHRU, Lille.
Healthy sleeping habits is a complex balance between behaviour, environment
and circadian rhythm. The quality of sleep can be improved by behaviour,
e.g. eating tryptophan and carbohydrate rich foods, physical exercise in the
afternoon or a cold shower just before going to bed. Total sleep time is
maximal in thermoneutrality and decreases above and below the
thermoneutrality zone. Thermoneutrality is reached for an environmental
temperature of 30-32 degrees C without night clothing or of 16-19 degrees
with a pyjama and at least one sheet. Noise also modifies sleep structure
and above 50dB shortens total sleeping time. Although subjects do become
subjectively accustomed to noise, vegetative cardiovascular reactivity to
environmental noise remains unchanged. The spontaneous circadian awake/sleep
cycle is 25 hours, slightly longer than the body temperature cycle, but when
subjects are exposed to environmental synchronization, the two cycles
coincide. In individuals undergoing temporal isolation, the two rhythms
become independent often leading to subjective discomfort and fatigue.
Certain factors including age can favour internal desynchronization. Other
factors may include social contact, stress due to mental work load, and
constant lighting which could lengthen the awake/sleep cycle. Caffeine
blocks the receptors of adenosine, and thus its effects of inhibiting
neurotransmission. Intake 30 to 60 minutes before sleeping shortens total
sleep time and increases the duration of stage 2 and shortens stage 3 and 4.
Alcohol may act as a relaxing, sedative agent when consumed just before
sleeping but can also lead to night-time awakening due to sympathetic
activation which does not return to baseline levels until the blood alcohol
levels have returned to 0. Nicotine has a biphasic effect on sleep: at low
concentrations, it leads to relaxation and sedation and at high
concentrations inhibits sleep. A careful study of sleeping habits is the
first step in evaluating complains of insomnia or hypersomnia. Before relyng
on drugs, treatment should start with attention to the sleep environment and
personal habits.
Wien Med Wochenschr. 1994;144(3):66-8.
[Fitness by cold stimulation of various intensity: effects on metabolism of
purines and free radicals]
[Article in German]
Brenke R, Siems W, Maass R.
Klinik und Poliklinik für Physikalische Medizin und Rehabilitation, Berlin,
Deutschland.
Whole-body cold stimuli lead to a dosage-depended decrease of uric acid
level in blood plasma. This could be observed in own studies on
winter-swimming and cold shower application and in studies on patients
treated by cold-chamber-therapy. This uric acid decrease is due to an
accelerated oxygen radical formation during cold exposition rather than to
an inhibition of purine metabolism. The acute oxidative loading due to cold
exposure and the long-term antioxidative adaptation may be interpreted as a
new molecular mechanism resulting in body hardening.
Acta Belg Med Phys. 1990 Oct-Dec;13(4):201-8.
[Lumbar hypermobility: where swimming becomes hydrotherapy]
[Article in Dutch]
Mergeay D, De Neve M.
Fysische Geneeskunde, Algemeen Ziekenhuis Stuivenberg Antwerpen.
In this paper the authors discuss the clinical problem of lumbar
hypermobility. The therapeutical possibilities are resumed briefly. The
philosophy of medical training therapy ("Heilgymnastik") is described. More
extensive the extra-advantages of hydrotherapy (methodical back-stroke
swimming) are searched for in a theoretical deductive way. The authors found
that: 1. swimming is a low-impact sport so far as the articulations are
concerned, 2. back-stroke is done mainly in a lumbar kyphosis, 3. swimming
is also an excellent cardiopulmonary training, 4. when swimming the muscles
of the shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle are trained in a nearly isokinetic
way (power-endurance), 5. the short transverso-spinal muscles are indirectly
trained in their tonic more than phasic stretch reflex (posture function),
6. the muscles of the trunk are trained
in a nearly isometric way in the appropriate angles (erect position), 7. the
position of the head in the water facilitates the abdominal muscles (tonic
neck reflex), 8. the cool temperature of the water generates
training-enhancing stress-responses, 9. endurance-training is ideal for the
postural function of the lower back muscles (especially the deeper layers
near the spine) which are anatomical and physiological suited for this
purpose, 10. warming-up and cooling-down procedures prepare the
neuromuscular, the cardiovascular and metabolic functions before the
workout-session (a cold shower afterwards acts to tonicize the skin and
muscles).
J Am Acad Dermatol. 2003 Nov;49(5):842-6.
Prevalence and characterization of uremic pruritus in patients undergoing
hemodialysis: uremic pruritus is still a major problem for patients with
end-stage renal disease.
Zucker I, Yosipovitch G, David M, Gafter U, Boner G.
Department of Dermatology, Rabin Medical Center, Petach Tikva.
BACKGROUND: Pruritus is a common disabling problem in patients with advanced
end-stage renal disease. Few studies have evaluated the clinical
characteristics of uremic itch. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this multicenter
study was to provide a comprehensive description of the prevalence and
clinical characteristics of pruritus affecting patients with end-stage renal
disease who are undergoing hemodialysis. METHODS: A detailed questionnaire
recently developed was used to evaluate pruritus in 219 patients undergoing
hemodialysis treatment in 3 dialysis units. We examined the relationship of
the quality of dialysis and various
factors and medical parameters to itch. RESULTS: Pruritus was a common
symptom in the study population. Approximately 66% of the patients had
pruritus at some point, and 48% were affected by it at the time of the
study. There was no correlation between the occurrence of pruritus and
demographic or medical parameters (type of kidney disease, medical
management, dialysis efficacy as expressed by Kt/V) of the patient. The data
suggest that uremic pruritus tends to be prolonged, frequent, and intense,
and it can impair the patient's quality of life including a negative effect
on sleep and mood. Major factors found to exacerbate pruritus include rest,
heat, dry skin, and sweat. Major factors found to reduce pruritus include
activity, sleep, hot and cold shower, and cold. Treatment with
angiotensin inhibitors seemed to be more common among those with uremia who
had itch (P =.02) whereas furosemide was more commonly used among those who
never itched (P =.002). CONCLUSION: This study provides a detailed
description of uremic pruritus with new data on its characteristics
including affective and sensory dimensions and associated symptoms.
Ageing Res Rev. 2010 Jan;9(1):69-76. Epub 2009 Dec 5.
Perspective: Does brown fat protect against diseases of aging?
Mattson MP.
Laboratory of Neurosciences, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research
Program, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA. mattsonm@grc.nia.nih.gov
The most commonly studied laboratory rodents possess a specialized form of
fat called brown adipose tissue (BAT) that generates heat to help maintain
body temperature in cold environments. In humans, BAT is abundant during
embryonic and early postnatal development, but is absent or present in
relatively small amounts in adults where it is located in paracervical and
supraclavicular regions. BAT cells can 'burn' fatty acid energy substrates
to generate heat because they possess large numbers of mitochondria in which
oxidative phosphorylation is uncoupled from ATP production as a result of a
transmembrane proton leak mediated by uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). Studies
of rodents in which BAT levels are either increased or decreased have
revealed a role for BAT in protection against diet-induced obesity. Data
suggest that individuals with low levels of BAT are prone to obesity,
insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease, whereas those with higher
levels of BAT maintain lower body weights and exhibit superior health as
they age. BAT levels decrease during aging, and dietary energy restriction
increases BAT activity and protects multiple organ systems including the
nervous system against age-related dysfunction and degeneration. Future
studies in which the effects of specific manipulations of BAT levels and
thermogenic activity on disease processes in animal models (diabetes,
cardiovascular disease, cancers, neurodegenerative diseases) are determined
will establish if and how BAT affects the development and progression of
age-related diseases. Data from animal studies suggest that BAT and
mitochondrial uncoupling can be targeted for interventions to prevent and
treat obesity and age-related diseases. Examples include: diet and lifestyle
changes; specific regimens of mild intermittent stress; drugs that
stimulate BAT formation and activity; induction of brown adipose cell
progenitors in muscle and other tissues; and transplantation of brown
adipose cells.
Physiol Genomics. 2005 Dec 14;24(1):37-44. Epub 2005 Oct 11.
Evidence for Nr4a1 as a cold-induced effector of brown fat thermogenesis.
Kanzleiter T, Schneider T, Walter I, Bolze F, Eickhorst C, Heldmaier G,
Klaus S, Klingenspor M.
Department of Animal Physiology, Biology Faculty, Philipps
University-Marburg, Marburg, Germany.
Acute cold exposure leads to norepinephrine release in brown adipose
tissue (BAT) and activates uncoupling protein (UCP)1-mediated nonshivering
thermogenesis. Chronic sympathetic stimulation is known to initiate
mitochondrial biogenesis, UCP1 expression, hyperplasia of BAT, and
recruitment of brown adipocytes in white adipose tissue (WAT) depots.
Despite distinct functions of BAT and WAT in energy balance, only a few
genes are exclusively expressed in either tissue. We identified NUR77
(Nr4a1), an orphan receptor, to be induced transiently in brown adipocytes
in response to beta-adrenergic stimulation and in BAT of cold-exposed mice.
Subsequent reporter gene assays demonstrated an inhibitory action of NUR77
on basal and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)gamma/retinoid
X receptor (RXR)alpha-mediated transactivation of the Ucp1 enhancer in
heterologous cotransfection experiments. Despite this function of NUR77 in
the control of Ucp1 gene expression, nonshivering thermogenesis was not
affected in Nur77 knockout mice. However, we observed a superinduction of
Nor1 in BAT of cold-exposed knockout mice. We conclude that NUR77 is a
cold-induced negative regulator of Ucp1, but phenotypic consequences in
knockout mice are compensated by functional redundancy of Nor1.
References and Abstracts for Brown Adipose Tissue Research
Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2010 Jun;6(6):319-25. Epub 2010 Apr 13.
Brown adipose tissue--a new role in humans?
Lidell ME, Enerbäck S.
Department of Medical and Clinical Genetics, Institute of Biomedicine,
University of Gothenburg, Box 440, SE-40530 Gothenburg, Sweden.
New targets for pharmacological interventions are of great importance to
combat the epidemic of obesity. Brown adipose tissue could potentially
represent one such target. Unlike white adipose tissue, brown adipose tissue
has the ability to dissipate energy by producing heat rather than storing it
as triglycerides. In small mammals, the presence of active brown adipose
tissue is pivotal for the maintenance of body temperature and possibly to
protect against the detrimental effects of surplus energy intake. Animal
studies have shown that expansion and/or activation of brown adipose tissue
counteracts diet-induced weight gain and related disorders such as type 2
diabetes mellitus. Several independent studies have now confirmed the
presence of functional brown adipose tissue in adult humans, for whom this
tissue is probably metabolically beneficial given its association with both
low BMI and low total adipose tissue content. Over the past few years,
knowledge of the transcriptional control and development of brown adipose
tissue has increased substantially. Thus, several possible targets that may
be useful for the expansion and/or activation of this tissue by
pharmacological means have been identified. Whether or not brown adipose
tissue will be useful in the battle against obesity remains to be seen.
However, this possibility is certainly well worth exploring.
Obes Rev. 2009 May;10(3):265-8. Epub 2009 Jan 19.
Have we entered the brown adipose tissue renaissance?
Ravussin E, Kozak LP.
Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA. Ravusse@pbrc.edu
In the 1970s and 1980s, it was observed that rodents could offset excess
calories ingested when they were fed a human-like 'cafeteria diet'. Although
it was erroneously concluded that this so-called diet-induced thermogenesis
was because of brown adipose tissue (BAT), it led to efforts to test whether
variations in brown fat in humans may explain the susceptibility to obesity.
However, from evidence on the inability of ephedrine or beta-3 adrenergic
agonists to induce BAT thermogenesis, it was concluded that the thermogenic
role of BAT was unimportant in adult humans largely because humans had low
numbers of brown adipocytes. Solid evidence on the actual numbers of brown
adipocytes in humans was not available. We are now re-evaluating the role of
BAT for the treatment of obesity given the following recent observations (i)
studies in nuclear medicine by using PET/CT scanning reveal the presence of
BAT in adult humans; and (ii) recent data suggest that a new transcription
factor called PDRM16 may control the induction of BAT. These recent
discoveries should revamp our effort to target the molecular development of
brown adipogenesis in the treatment of obesity.
Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2010 Apr;17(2):143-9.
Brown fat as a therapy for obesity and diabetes.
Cypess AM, Kahn CR.
Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, One Joslin Place, Boston,
Massachusetts, 02215, USA.
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Human fat consists of white and brown adipose tissue (WAT
and BAT). Though most fat is energy-storing WAT, the thermogenic capacity of
even small amounts of BAT makes it an attractive therapeutic target for
inducing weight loss through energy expenditure. This review evaluates the
recent discoveries regarding the identification of functional BAT in adult
humans and its potential as a therapy for obesity and diabetes.
RECENT FINDINGS: Over the past year, several independent research teams used
a combination of positron-emission tomography and computed tomography
(PET/CT) imaging, immunohistochemistry, and gene and protein expression
assays to prove conclusively that adult humans have functional BAT. This has
occurred against a backdrop of basic studies defining the origins of BAT,
new components of its transcriptional regulation, and the role of hormones
in stimulation of BAT growth and differentiation.
SUMMARY: Adult humans have functional BAT, a new target for antiobesity and
antidiabetes therapies focusing on increasing energy expenditure. Future
studies will refine the methodologies used to measure BAT mass and activity,
expand our knowledge of critical-control points in BAT regulation, and focus
on testing pharmacological agents that increase BAT thermogenesis and help
achieve long-lasting weight loss and an improved metabolic profile.
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2010 Mar;1801(3):372-6. Epub 2009 Sep 24.
Recruitment of brown fat and conversion of white into brown adipocytes:
strategies to fight the metabolic complications of obesity?
Langin D.
Inserm U858, Laboratoire de recherches sur les obésités, Toulouse, F-31432,
France. dominique.langin@inserm.fr
The role of white and brown adipose tissues in energy metabolism is well
established. However, the existence of brown fat in adult humans was until
very recently a matter of debate, and the molecular mechanisms underlying
brown adipocyte development remained largely unknown. In 2009, several
studies brought direct evidence for functional brown adipose tissue in
adults. New factors involved in brown fat cell differentiation have been
identified. Moreover, work on the origin of fat cells took an unexpected
path with the recognition of different populations of brown fat cell
precursors according to the anatomical location of the fat depots: a
precursor common to skeletal muscle cells and brown adipocytes from brown
fat depots, and a progenitor cell common to white adipocytes and brown
adipocytes that appear in certain conditions in white fat depots. There is
also mounting evidence that mature white adipocytes, including human fat
cells, can be converted into brown fat-like adipocytes, and that the typical
fatty acid storage phenotype of white adipocyte can be altered towards a fat
utilization phenotype. These data open up new opportunities for the
development of drugs for obesity and its metabolic and cardiovascular
complications.
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Aug;293(2):E444-52. Epub 2007 May 1.
Unexpected evidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humans.
Nedergaard J, Bengtsson T, Cannon B.
The Wenner-Gren Institute, The Arrhenius Laboratories F3, Stockholm
University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden. jan@metabol.su.se
The contention that brown adipose tissue is absent in adult man has meant
that processes attributed to active brown adipose tissue in experimental
animals (mainly rodents), i.e., classical nonshivering thermogenesis,
adaptive adrenergic thermogenesis, diet-induced thermogenesis, and
antiobesity, should be either absent or attributed to alternative (unknown)
mechanisms in man. However, serendipidously, as a consequence of the use of
fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG PET) to trace tumor
metastasis, observations that may change that notion have recently been
made. These tomography scans have visualized symmetrical areas of increased
tracer uptake in the upper parts of the human body; these areas of uptake
correspond to brown adipose tissue. We examine here the published
observations from a viewpoint of human physiology. The human depots are
somewhat differently located from those in rodents, the main depots being
found in the supraclavicular and the neck regions with some additional
paravertebral, mediastinal, para-aortic, and suprarenal localizations (but
no interscapular). Brown adipose tissue activity in man is acutely cold
induced and is stimulated via the sympathetic nervous system. The prevalence
of active brown adipose tissue in normal adult man can be only indirectly
estimated, but it would seem that the prevalence of active brown adipose
tissue in the population may be at least in the range of some tens of
percent. We conclude that a substantial fraction of adult humans possess
active brown adipose tissue that thus has the potential to be of metabolic
significance for normal human physiology as well as to become
pharmaceutically activated in efforts to combat obesity.
J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005 Oct;53(4):671-83.
Subcutaneous fat in normal and diseased states: 2. Anatomy and physiology of
white and brown adipose tissue.
Avram AS, Avram MM, James WD.
White and brown adipose tissues, both present to some degree in all mammals,
represent counter actors in energy metabolism. One of the primary functions
of white adipocytes is to store excess energy as lipid, which is then
mobilized to other tissues in response to metabolic needs that arise in
times of food shortage. White adipocyte physiology can be grouped into 3
main categories with potentially overlapping mechanisms: lipid metabolism,
glucose metabolism, and endocrine functions. Brown adipocytes, on the other
hand, use accumulated lipid from food primarily as a source for chemical
energy that can then be released from the cell in the form of heat.
Recently, new discoveries about the significance of brown fat have sparked
interest in this organ as a potential tool in the fight against obesity in
adult humans. A basic overview of the anatomy and physiology of adipose
tissue, with particular emphasis on the differences between white and brown
fat, is presented.
Mini Rev Med Chem. 2005 Mar;5(3):269-78.
The brown adipose cell: a unique model for understanding the molecular
mechanism of insulin resistance.
Valverde AM, Benito M.
Instituto de Bioquímica/Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular II,
Centro Mixto CSIC/UCM, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense,
28040-Madrid, Spain. valverde@farm.ucm.es
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) is a complex metabolic disease that occurs
when insulin secretion can no longer compensate insulin resistance in
peripheral tissues. At the molecular level, insulin resistance correlates
with impaired insulin signaling. This review provides new insights into the
molecular mechanisms of insulin action and resistance in brown adipose
tissue (BAT) and pinpoints the role of BAT in the control of glucose
homeostasis.
Usp Fiziol Nauk. 2002 Apr-Jun;33(2):17-29.
[Brown fat tissue in humans]
[Article in Russian]
Medvedev LN, Elsukova EI.
Pedagogical University, Krasnoyarsk.
Abstract
Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is universally present in mammals. Thermal
production in such tissue is physiologically important for maintaining
temperature homeostasis and regulation of body mass in small-size
homoiotherms. At present it is clearly established that unlike other large
mammals, brown adipose in man and primates is retained throughout the whole
postnatal othogenesis. Therefore, BAT appears as a possible effector of
pharmacogenetic protection from human excessive adiposis. Systematic
reserach of various functioning aspects of this unique organ of mammals were
started abroad as early as 1960-es, and are actively developing at present.
Domestic research of energy circulation physiology and of thermoregulation
developed mostly outside the brown adipose tissue. Therefore, the principal
objective of this publication is to draw attention of experimental and
clinical researches to an intriguing aspect of the issue of energy
circulation in humans--the issue of brown adipose functioning.
Go back to: Learning the Buteyko method by modules
| Disclaimer | Copyright © 2011 Artour Rakhimov | About Artour | Contributions | Contact details | Promote this site |